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School-to-Prison Pipeline in Ethnic Minority Adolescents with Traumatic Brain Injury

Categories: ACBIS Insider

By Chinedu K. Onwudebe, MS, and Monique R. Pappadis, PhD, MEd

The school-to-prison pipeline is the theory that the rise in punitive punishment in educational settings and criminal justice systems is related; students are subject to disciplinary policies that decrease their educational success and opportunities and push them into the juvenile and, eventually, the criminal justice system. This is perpetuated by zero-tolerance policies being adopted by schools, punishments such as out-of-school suspensions and expulsions, increased police presence in schools, and the criminalization of student behavior 7, 8, 9. Students belonging to minority groups, such as those with lower socioeconomic status, students of color, LGBTQ students, and students with disabilities are disproportionally affected. Evidence shows that schools with a large percentage of ethnic minorities utilize stern discipline policies, surveillance, and security/police presence, with African American as well as Latinx students being particularly susceptible to placement into the “school-to-prison pipeline” in urban and rural schools 6. Additionally, a California study found that Black adolescents face a higher burden of injury at the hands of law enforcement than other races, with Black boys between 15 through 19 years of age experiencing 143.2 additional injuries per 100,000 person-years or 3.5 times the rate in comparison to white boys, while Black girls of the same age range experienced 4.3 times the injury rate in comparison to their white counterparts 4.

In the United States, 75-90% of visits to the emergency department were classified as mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI), 34% of which constitute adolescent youth 1. Evidence from multiple countries, including the United States, shows that 46% of individuals in prisons and jails have a history of TBI 3. A study that included 61 incarcerated male offenders with an average age of 16 years had 41% of participants reporting experiencing a head injury that resulted in a loss of consciousness 2. Experiencing a TBI in childhood has been associated with the neurocognitive effects of reduced cognitive skills, impulse control, and cognitive empathy as well as the social effects of reduced academic performance, increased antisocial behavior, and susceptibility to negative influence by peers – risk factors for criminal behavior 5. Furthermore, individuals with an mTBI have been shown to have statistically significant greater occurrences of psychopathologies such as aggressive behavior, anxiety/depression, attention problems, and delinquency, than those without an mTBI and could amplify any neurocognitive issues that occurred as a result of adverse life events 1, 10.

An approach to restorative justice that considers the association between TBI and the associated psychopathologies in the incarcerated juvenile population as well as the association between these behaviors and educational outcomes could be key in improving this problem. Implementation of targeted rehabilitation that includes treatment for these individuals’ brain injuries could reduce the occurrence of criminal behaviors. In addition, screening of TBI history and connecting students with early intervention can improve educational outcomes and success. Improvement in the mental and physical health outcomes and the provision of support and services during the transition of incarcerated youth back into the community will not only immediately benefit this vulnerable population, but can also reduce recidivism. This avenue provides a potentially powerful way to combat health inequities and combat the systemic racism that afflicts marginalized youth in the United States.

The Academy of Certified Brain Injury Specialists strives to improve the quality of care for individuals with brain injury. Are you interested in becoming certified as a brain injury specialist? Learn more.

 

References

  1. Connolly EJ, McCormick BF. Mild traumatic brain injury and psychopathology in adolescence: Evidence from the project on Human Development in Chicago neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2019;65(1):79–85.
  2. Davies RC, Williams WH, Hinder D, Burgess CN, Mounce LT. Self-reported traumatic brain injury and postconcussion symptoms in incarcerated youth. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation. 2012;27(3).
  3. Durand E, Chevignard M, Ruet A, Dereix A, Jourdan C, Pradat-Diehl P. History of traumatic brain injury in prison populations: A systematic review. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine. 2017;60(2):95–101.
  4. Farkas K, Duarte CdP, Ahern J. Injuries to children and adolescents by law enforcement. JAMA Pediatrics. 2022;176(1):89.
  5. Hughes N, Williams WH, Chitsabesan P, Walesby RC, Mounce LT, Clasby B. The prevalence of traumatic brain injury among young offenders in custody. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation. 2015;30(2):94–105.
  6. Marchbanks MP, Peguero AA, Varela KS, Blake JJ, Eason JM. School strictness and disproportionate minority contact. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2016;16(2):241–59.
  7. Nelson L, Lind D. The school-to-prison pipeline, explained [Internet]. Vox. Vox; 2015 [cited 2022Aug22]. Available from: https://www.vox.com/2015/2/24/8101289/school-discipline-race
  8. Redfield SE, Nance JP. The American Bar Association Joint Task Force on reversing the school-to-prison pipeline preliminary report. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2016;
  9. Rocque M, Snellings Q. The new disciplinology: Research, theory, and remaining puzzles on the school-to-prison pipeline. Journal of Criminal Justice. 2018;59:3–11.
  10. Williams WH, Chitsabesan P, Fazel S, McMillan T, Hughes N, Parsonage M, et al. Traumatic brain injury: A potential cause of violent crime? The Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5(10):836–44.